● Cambridge International Examination Guide (0620 & 0971)

Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Syllabus 2026–2028: Core vs Extended & Exam Strategy

The definitive syllabus breakdown for Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry (0620 & 9–1 grading 0971). Explore the 12 core modules, key 2026–2028 curriculum modernizations, Paper 2, 4 & 6 weightings, and the roadmap to secure a Grade 9 (A*).

📘 Codes: 0620 & 0971 🔬 12 Core Modules 🎯 Core (Max C) vs Extended (Grade 9) 📊 Papers 2, 4 & 6 Breakdown
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    Specification Fact Sheet
    Exam Board: Cambridge CAIE
    Syllabus Codes: 0620 (A*–G) / 0971 (9–1)
    Validity Years: 2026, 2027 & 2028 Exams
    Guided Learning: 130 Teaching Hours
    M

    Academic Evaluation by Mustafa Hoca — Head of Chemistry, Perga Eğitim

    ODTÜ Chemistry Graduate | 26+ Years International Exam Tutoring | Cambridge & Edexcel Specialist
    "The Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry syllabus for the 2026–2028 examination series places heightened emphasis on quantitative stoichiometry, renewable energy electrochemistry (including hydrogen fuel cells), and environmental relevance. Many candidates lose high-value marks in Paper 4 not from a lack of general knowledge, but from omitting mandatory state symbols and failing to reproduce the exact phraseology demanded by Cambridge mark schemes. This guide breaks down the curriculum topic by topic so students and parents know exactly what to target."
    Syllabus at a Glance

    Key Architecture of Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry

    12
    Core Modules
    From particulate matter and stoichiometry to organic pathways and qualitative chemical analysis.
    3
    Exam Papers
    Paper 2 (MCQ 30%), Paper 4 (Extended Theory 50%), and Paper 6 (Alternative to Practical 20%).
    Grade C
    Core Tier Ceiling
    Core candidates are mathematically capped at Grade C (Grade 4). Extended tier is mandatory for Grades 9–7 (A*–A).
    2026–28
    Updated Cycle
    Streamlined extraction steps, modernized environmental metrics, and mandatory state symbol precision.
    Curriculum Modernization

    Major Updates in the 2026–2028 Examination Series

    Cambridge Assessment International Education periodically updates its specifications to align with modern industrial chemistry, sustainability, and educational research. Understanding these shifts prevents students from wasting revision time on retired content.

    Expanded Content

    Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells & Renewable Electrochemistry

    Detailed focus has been added to electrochemistry regarding the advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cells compared to petroleum fuels, including word and symbol equations for the half-reactions occurring at both electrodes in acidic and alkaline electrolytes.

    Modernized Focus

    Environmental Chemistry & Plastic Lifecycle

    Environmental units (Topic 10) have been reframed around modern climate metrics: greenhouse gas emissions, carbon footprint calculation concepts, catalytic converter reduction mechanisms ($2\text{CO} + 2\text{NO} \rightarrow 2\text{CO}_2 + \text{N}_2$), and the environmental challenges of non-biodegradable plastics alongside modern chemical recycling routes.

    Streamlined Content

    Removal of Obsolete Extraction Details

    Older specification sections detailing obsolete industrial extraction steps (such as silver extraction from argentite and complex secondary blast furnace slag reactions) have been removed or simplified, shifting focus toward reactivity principles and recycling economics.

    Strict Examiner Rule

    State Symbols & Quantitative Equation Rigour

    Examiner reports indicate zero tolerance for missing state symbols `(s)`, `(l)`, `(g)`, and `(aq)` in ionic precipitation equations, acid-metal reactions, and gas evolution questions where specified. Candidates must include state symbols instinctively on Paper 4 and Paper 6.

    Tier Selection

    Core vs Extended Curriculum: Which Tier Should You Take?

    Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry offers two distinct tiers. The decision to register for Core or Extended determines whether a student can qualify for top grades and pursue subsequent science curricula such as A-Level Chemistry or IB Diploma Chemistry HL.

    FeatureCore CurriculumExtended Curriculum (Recommended)
    Available GradesGrades C, D, E, F, G (9–1 equivalent: Grades 4 to 1)Grades A*, A, B, C, D, E, F, G (Grades 9 to 1)
    Maximum Possible GradeGrade C (Grade 4) — Even with 100% scoreGrade A* (Grade 9)
    Assigned Theory PaperPaper 1 (MCQ) & Paper 3 (Core Theory)Paper 2 (Extended MCQ) & Paper 4 (Extended Theory)
    Practical AssessmentPaper 5 (Practical Test) or Paper 6 (Alternative to Practical)Paper 5 (Practical Test) or Paper 6 (Alternative to Practical)
    Content DepthFoundational descriptive chemistry, qualitative observationsFull stoichiometry, mole volume calculations, dynamic equilibrium, organic reaction mechanisms, ionic half-equations
    Academic ProgressionAcceptable for non-science general diploma requirementsMandatory foundation for A-Level Chemistry, IB Higher Level Chemistry, Medicine, and Engineering
    Syllabus Breakdown

    The 12 Core Syllabus Modules (2026–2028)

    Below is the exhaustive topic-by-topic curriculum roadmap for Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry (0620/0971), including high-frequency exam traps and the specific Extended concepts examiners prioritize.

    01
    States of Matter

    Covers particulate structure, state changes, kinetic theory, and diffusion principles.

    • Arrangement, motion, and forces of particles in solids, liquids, and gases
    • Heating and cooling curves (interpreting melting/boiling points from graph plateaus)
    • Diffusion and the effect of relative molecular mass ($M_r$) on diffusion rates (e.g. $\text{NH}_3$ vs $\text{HCl}$ tube experiment)
    Examiner Trap: Candidates frequently describe particles as "expanding" when heated. Particles do not expand; they gain kinetic energy and move further apart.
    02
    Atoms, Elements & Compounds

    The foundation for all chemical bonding, atomic structure, and lattice classification.

    • Protons, neutrons, electrons, atomic number, and mass number
    • Isotopes and relative atomic mass calculations
    • Ionic bonding (electron transfer, dot-and-cross diagrams, giant ionic lattices)
    • Covalent bonding (electron sharing, simple molecular vs giant covalent structures: diamond, graphite, silicon(IV) oxide)
    • Metallic bonding (positive ions in a sea of delocalized electrons)
    Examiner Trap: Failing to explain high melting points of diamond/quartz by citing "many strong covalent bonds that require extensive thermal energy to break."
    03
    Stoichiometry & The Mole Concept

    The single highest-yielding topic on Paper 4, separating Grade 9 candidates from the rest.

    • Relative formula mass ($M_r$) and percentage by mass
    • The mole concept and Avogadro constant: $n = m / M$
    • Molar gas volume ($24\text{ dm}^3$ at room temperature and pressure)
    • Solution concentration calculations: $c = n / V$ (converting $\text{cm}^3$ to $\text{dm}^3$)
    • Empirical and molecular formula derivations from experimental mass data
    • Percentage yield and percentage purity calculations
    Examiner Trap: Forgetting to convert volume from $\text{cm}^3$ to $\text{dm}^3$ (dividing by 1000) ruins entire multi-step titration calculations on Paper 4.
    04
    Electrochemistry

    Electrolysis of molten salts and aqueous electrolytes, electroplating, and fuel cells.

    • Electrolysis of molten compounds (e.g. molten lead(II) bromide)
    • Electrolysis of aqueous solutions: dilute vs concentrated $\text{NaCl}$, dilute $\text{H}_2\text{SO}_4$, aqueous $\text{CuSO}_4$
    • Predicting products at anode and cathode using reactivity discharge rules
    • Purification of copper using active copper electrodes
    • Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell chemistry and half-equations at electrodes
    Examiner Trap: Stating that "electrons flow through the electrolyte." Electrons flow only through external wires; ions carry charge through the solution.
    05
    Chemical Energetics

    Exothermic and endothermic energy transfers, reaction profiles, and bond energy mathematics.

    • Exothermic vs endothermic processes (temperature changes, sign of $\Delta H$)
    • Reaction pathway diagrams showing reactants, products, activation energy ($E_a$), and $\Delta H$
    • Bond breaking (endothermic) vs bond forming (exothermic)
    • Calculating enthalpy changes using bond energy data: $\Delta H = \Sigma(\text{bonds broken}) - \Sigma(\text{bonds formed})$
    Examiner Trap: Confusing the sign of $\Delta H$. Remember: bond breaking is positive ($+\Delta H$), bond making is negative ($-\Delta H$).
    06
    Chemical Reactions & Equilibrium

    Collision theory, rate experiments, dynamic equilibrium, and redox definitions.

    • Rates of reaction: concentration, pressure, surface area, temperature, and catalysts
    • Collision theory: collision frequency vs proportion of successful collisions ($E \ge E_a$)
    • Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium characteristics
    • Le Chatelier's principle: predicting shifts with temperature, pressure, and concentration
    • Redox: oxidation/reduction in terms of oxygen transfer, electron transfer (OIL RIG), and oxidation numbers
    Examiner Trap: Saying temperature increases reaction rate simply because "particles move faster." The critical factor is that a higher proportion of particles possess energy greater than activation energy ($E_a$).
    07
    Acids, Bases & Salts

    Proton transfer theory, oxide classifications, and precise salt preparation protocols.

    • Definitions of acids as proton donors ($\text{H}^+$) and bases as proton acceptors ($\text{H}^+$)
    • Strong vs weak acids (complete vs partial dissociation in aqueous solution)
    • Oxides: acidic ($\text{SO}_2$, $\text{CO}_2$), basic ($\text{CuO}$, $\text{CaO}$), amphoteric ($\text{Al}_2\text{O}_3$, $\text{ZnO}$), and neutral ($\text{CO}$, $\text{NO}$)
    • Salt preparations: excess metal/carbonate method, titration method, and precipitation method
    Examiner Trap: Choosing the wrong preparation technique. Soluble salts from insoluble bases use the excess method; soluble salts from soluble alkalis require titration.
    08
    The Periodic Table

    Periodic trends, Group I alkali metals, Group VII halogens, transition metals, and noble gases.

    • Periodic trends across periods (metallic to non-metallic character)
    • Group I alkali metals: physical properties, trends in density, melting point, and reactivity with water
    • Group VII halogens: state, colour trends ($\text{Cl}_2$ gas, $\text{Br}_2$ liquid, $\text{I}_2$ solid), and displacement reactions
    • Transition elements: high densities, variable oxidation states, coloured compounds, catalytic activity
    Examiner Trap: In halogen displacement, stating "chlorine displaced sodium" instead of "chlorine displaced bromide ions to form bromine."
    09
    Metals & Extraction

    The reactivity series, industrial blast furnace reduction, aluminium electrolysis, and alloys.

    • Reactivity series based on reactions with water, steam, and dilute acids
    • Carbon reduction in the blast furnace: extraction of iron from hematite, removal of acidic impurities by limestone
    • Electrolytic extraction of aluminium from bauxite in molten cryolite
    • Corrosion and barrier/sacrificial rust protection methods
    • Alloys (brass, bronze, stainless steel) and explaining hardness via disrupted layer sliding
    Examiner Trap: Forgetting the role of cryolite: it acts as a solvent to lower the operating temperature from $2000^\circ\text{C}$ to $950^\circ\text{C}$, conserving energy.
    10
    Chemistry of the Environment

    Atmospheric composition, water purification, air pollutants, and sustainable fertilizers.

    • Composition of clean, dry air ($78\% \text{ N}_2$, $21\% \text{ O}_2$, small quantities of noble gases and $\text{CO}_2$)
    • Pollutants: carbon monoxide ($\text{CO}$), sulfur dioxide ($\text{SO}_2$), oxides of nitrogen ($\text{NO}_x$), and lead compounds
    • Catalytic converters and greenhouse gases ($\text{CH}_4$, $\text{CO}_2$)
    • Water treatment stages: sedimentation, filtration, and chlorination
    • $\text{NPK}$ fertilisers and the Haber process conditions ($450^\circ\text{C}$, $200\text{ atm}$, iron catalyst)
    Examiner Trap: Confusing the causes of global warming ($\text{CO}_2$, $\text{CH}_4$) with acid rain ($\text{SO}_2$, $\text{NO}_x$). They are distinct environmental phenomena.
    11
    Organic Chemistry

    Homologous series, functional groups, isomerism, addition & condensation polymers.

    • Names, formulas, and structures of alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, and carboxylic acids
    • Fractional distillation of petroleum and cracking of long-chain alkanes
    • Addition reactions of alkenes (bromine water test, hydration with steam, hydrogenation)
    • Manufacture of ethanol: fermentation of glucose vs hydration of ethene
    • Polymers: addition polymerization (poly(ethene)) vs condensation polymerization (nylon, PET polyesters, and proteins)
    Examiner Trap: Drawing monomer-to-polymer repeat units with open double bonds remaining. The polymer repeat unit must have single $\text{C}-\text{C}$ bonds and open brackets with continuation bonds.
    12
    Experimental Techniques & Chemical Analysis

    The core syllabus for Paper 5 & Paper 6 practical assessment and ion identification.

    • Apparatus selection for volume, temperature, and mass measurements
    • Paper chromatography and calculating $R_f$ values
    • Cation tests using aqueous $\text{NaOH}$ and aqueous $\text{NH}_3$ ($\text{Cu}^{2+}$, $\text{Fe}^{2+}$, $\text{Fe}^{3+}$, $\text{Al}^{3+}$, $\text{Zn}^{2+}$, $\text{Ca}^{2+}$, $\text{Cr}^{3+}$, $\text{NH}_4^+$)
    • Anion tests: carbonate ($\text{CO}_3^{2-}$), chloride, bromide, iodide, sulfate ($\text{SO}_4^{2-}$), sulfite, and nitrate
    • Gas identification tests: $\text{H}_2$, $\text{O}_2$, $\text{CO}_2$, $\text{NH}_3$, $\text{Cl}_2$, $\text{SO}_2$
    Examiner Trap: Confusing $\text{Al}^{3+}$ and $\text{Zn}^{2+}$. Both give a white precipitate soluble in excess $\text{NaOH}$, but only $\text{Zn}^{2+}$ redissolves in excess aqueous ammonia.
    Assessment Scheme

    Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Examination Papers & Weightings

    Candidates who take the Extended curriculum must sit three distinct components: Paper 2, Paper 4, and either Paper 5 or Paper 6. Understanding the mark distribution is essential for effective revision planning.

    Paper 2
    Multiple Choice (Extended)
    Number of Questions 40 Questions
    Exam Duration 45 Minutes
    Total Raw Marks 40 Marks
    Syllabus Weighting 30% of Overall
    Paper 4
    Theory (Extended Structured)
    Question Types Short-answer & Structured
    Exam Duration 1 Hour 15 Mins
    Total Raw Marks 80 Marks
    Syllabus Weighting 50% of Overall
    Paper 5 or 6
    Practical Assessment
    Format Option Lab Test (P5) or Written (P6)
    Exam Duration 1 Hour
    Total Raw Marks 40 Marks
    Syllabus Weighting 20% of Overall
    Practical Assessment Options

    Paper 5 vs Paper 6: Which Route Should You Choose?

    Cambridge provides two routes to assess practical experimental competency (worth 20% of the qualification). In Turkey, international schools such as BISI, Tarabya British Schools, IICS, MEF International, and Bilfen, as well as independent private candidates, predominantly enter students for Paper 6.

    Paper 5: Practical Test (Wet Lab) Hands-on Lab

    Conducted in a fully equipped school chemistry laboratory under exam conditions. Candidates physically handle test tubes, burettes, indicators, and reagents.

    • Requires certified school laboratory facilities and specialist chemical stocks.
    • Assesses physical titration technique, recording meniscus readings accurately to $0.1\text{ cm}^3$.
    • Observing and recording live qualitative precipitation changes, effervescence, and colour transitions.
    Paper 6: Alternative to Practical (Written) Written Exam

    A 1-hour written examination paper assessing experimental design, apparatus evaluation, reading scales, error identification, and data handling.

    • Zero lab risk: Open to all private candidates and schools without specialist laboratory spaces.
    • Graph plotting: precise plotting of points with small crosses ($\times$), smooth best-fit lines, and identifying anomalous points.
    • The 6-Mark Planning Question: Formulating an experimental investigation (variables, controlled factors, apparatus, steps, and conclusion).
    High-Yield Methodology

    The 5 Pillars for Achieving a Grade 9 in IGCSE Chemistry

    Securing a Cambridge Grade 9 requires more than passive memorisation. Our students at Perga Eğitim follow a rigorous five-step framework tested over two decades.

    01

    Master Exact Mark Scheme Keywords

    Cambridge examiners award marks based on precise phrasing. Stating "the reaction speeds up because particles hit more" earns zero marks. The required phrase is "increased collision frequency between particles with energy greater than activation energy ($E \ge E_a$)."

    02

    Total Command of Topic 3 Calculations

    Stoichiometry calculations in Paper 4 are multi-step and carry 3 to 6 marks each. Drilling reacting masses, gas volumes, limiting reagents, and titration mathematics turns the hardest questions on the paper into guaranteed points.

    03

    Systematic Flashcard Retrieval for Ion Tests

    Topic 12 (qualitative analysis) tests over 20 specific precipitate colours, solubilities in excess ammonia, and gas identification reactions. Daily active recall flashcards ensure instant, error-free recall under exam pressure.

    04

    Timed Specimen & Past Paper Drilling

    Work through chronological past papers from 2020 through 2025, culminating in the 2026 specimen papers. Strict timing prevents the common Paper 4 pitfall of running out of time during extended 6-mark questions.

    05

    The 6-Mark Experimental Design Template

    Every Paper 6 exam features a 6-mark experimental planning question. We provide a structured blueprint covering independent variable, dependent variable, apparatus, controlled variables, step-by-step method, and data processing.

    06

    Diagnostic Gap Analysis with Mustafa Hoca

    A 40-minute diagnostic session identifies whether a student's stumbling block is conceptual understanding, calculation mechanics, or exam technique—saving months of unfocused revision.

    Academic Resource Hub

    Related Cambridge IGCSE Guides & Materials

    Deepen your exam preparation with our dedicated past paper archives, specification analyses, and tailored tutoring services.

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    Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Tutoring

    Expert 1-to-1 online lessons with Mustafa Hoca covering the 0620 and 0971 syllabuses with past paper drilling.

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    IGCSE Chemistry Central Hub

    The complete resource portal comparing Cambridge, Edexcel, and OxfordAQA Chemistry curricula.

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    CIE IGCSE Chemistry Past Papers

    Direct download library for Cambridge 0620 Paper 2, Paper 4, and Paper 6 past papers and mark schemes.

    Access Past Papers →
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    Oxford AQA IGCSE Chemistry (9202)

    Detailed specification guide for students studying under the OxfordAQA International GCSE exam board.

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    Mark Scheme Mastery & Strategy

    How examiners grade Cambridge papers, how to avoid method mark traps, and self-correction techniques.

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    Frequently Asked Questions

    Frequently Asked Questions: Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry (2026–2028)

    What are the primary changes introduced in the Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 2026–2028 syllabus?

    The 2026–2028 syllabus updates modernize environmental chemistry topics (introducing concepts of carbon footprint, renewable energy electrochemistry with hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells, and modern plastics recycling), remove obsolete extraction details (such as silver extraction), and enforce strict mark scheme penalization for missing state symbols `(s)`, `(l)`, `(g)`, and `(aq)` in chemical equations.

    What is the exact difference between syllabus codes 0620 and 0971?

    The curriculum, examination papers, questions, and mark schemes for Cambridge 0620 and Cambridge 0971 are completely identical. The sole difference is the grading system: 0620 uses the traditional A* to G grading scale, while 0971 uses the reformed 9 to 1 numerical scale. Both are equally recognized by global universities and sixth forms.

    Can a student achieve a Grade 9 or A* taking the Core curriculum?

    No. Core curriculum candidates sit Paper 1 (Core MCQ) and Paper 3 (Core Theory), which mathematically caps their maximum possible grade at Grade C (or Grade 4). To be eligible for grades A*, A, and B (or Grades 9, 8, and 7), candidates must be entered for the Extended curriculum and sit Paper 2 and Paper 4.

    Should our student take Paper 5 (Practical Test) or Paper 6 (Alternative to Practical)?

    Both papers carry an identical 20% weighting and evaluate the exact same assessment objective (AO3 Experimental skills). Paper 5 is conducted in a wet laboratory, while Paper 6 is a written exam assessing experimental design, data interpretation, and graph drawing. For private candidates and students whose schools do not offer extensive lab sessions, Paper 6 is the safer, standard choice.

    Are calculators permitted across all IGCSE Chemistry papers?

    Yes. Scientific calculators that comply with Cambridge regulations (non-programmable, without graphical display or text storage) are permitted in all papers: Paper 1/2 (Multiple Choice), Paper 3/4 (Theory), and Paper 5/6 (Practical).

    Why is Topic 3 (Stoichiometry) considered the main grade-differentiator?

    Stoichiometry involves multi-step mathematical calculations: mole conversions ($n = m/M$), gas volumes at r.t.p. ($24\text{ dm}^3$), solution molarity ($c = n/V$), limiting reactants, and titration analyses. Because these questions are worth up to 6 marks each with strict method marking, excelling in Topic 3 reliably separates Grade 8/9 candidates from lower grades.

    How strictly are state symbols marked on Paper 4?

    In the 2026–2028 examination series, examiners penalize missing or incorrect state symbols wherever the question stem specifies "including state symbols," particularly in precipitation reactions, neutralization ionic equations, and gas-generating reactions. Students must treat state symbols as mandatory whenever writing balanced symbol equations.

    When should an IGCSE student transition from topical worksheets to full past papers?

    We recommend topical practice during the first 18 months of study. By November or December of Year 11 (10. sınıf in Turkey), once approximately 75% of the syllabus has been covered, students should transition to full-length timed past papers under exam conditions, beginning with papers from 2020 through to recent series.

    Which schools in Turkey offer Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry?

    Cambridge IGCSE is taught at international and private schools in Turkey including British International School Istanbul (BISI), Tarabya British Schools (TBS), Istanbul International Community School (IICS), MEF International School, and Bilfen (in Grades 9–10). Independent students can also sit examinations as private candidates at approved British Council test centres.

    How does Perga Eğitim prepare students specifically for the 2026–2028 specification?

    Our program is led directly by Mustafa Hoca (ODTÜ Chemistry graduate, 26+ years of international exam experience). We begin with a 40-minute diagnostic session to identify topic deficiencies, provide comprehensive modular notes for all 12 topics, drill recent past paper questions with examiner mark scheme keywords, and provide dedicated preparation for Paper 6 experimental design.

    Ready to Master the Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Syllabus?

    Book a 40-minute diagnostic session with Mustafa Hoca. We will assess your current topic knowledge, review your Paper 4 technique, and build a tailored revision plan targeting a Grade 9.

    Book Free Diagnostic Session → Explore Tutoring Program

    Official contact: 0 505 783 24 34 | Perga Eğitim — Istanbul & Worldwide Online

    Official Syllabus

    Complete Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Subject Content (0620)

    Below is the official Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry syllabus content for examination from 2026. Core content is required for all candidates. Supplement content (shaded) is required only for Extended candidates targeting grades A*–C. Click any topic to expand and view all learning objectives.

    1. States of Matter +

    1.1 Solids, Liquids and Gases

    CoreSupplement
    1 State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases
    2 Describe the structures of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle separation, arrangement and motion
    3 Describe changes of state in terms of melting, boiling, evaporating, freezing and condensing
    4 Describe the effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas5 Explain changes of state in terms of kinetic particle theory, including the interpretation of heating and cooling curves
    6 Explain, in terms of kinetic particle theory, the effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas

    1.2 Diffusion

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe and explain diffusion in terms of kinetic particle theory
    2 Describe and explain the effect of relative molecular mass on the rate of diffusion of gases
    2. Atoms, Elements and Compounds +

    2.1 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the differences between elements, compounds and mixtures

    2.2 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the structure of the atom as a central nucleus containing neutrons and protons surrounded by electrons in shells
    2 State the relative charges and relative masses of a proton, a neutron and an electron
    3 Define proton number/atomic number as the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
    4 Define mass number/nucleon number as the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
    5 Determine the electronic configuration of elements and their ions with proton number 1 to 20, e.g. 2,8,3
    6 State that: (a) Group VIII noble gases have a full outer electron shell (b) the number of outer shell electrons is equal to the group number in Groups I to VII (c) the number of occupied electron shells is equal to the period number

    2.3 Isotopes

    CoreSupplement
    1 Define isotopes as different atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
    2 Interpret and use symbols for atoms, e.g. 126C and ions, e.g. 3517Cl−3 State that isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties because they have the same number of electrons and therefore the same electronic configuration
    4 Calculate the relative atomic mass of an element from the relative masses and abundances of its isotopes

    2.4 Ions and Ionic Bonds

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the formation of positive ions, known as cations, and negative ions, known as anions
    2 State that an ionic bond is a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
    3 Describe the formation of ionic bonds between elements from Group I and Group VII, including the use of dot-and-cross diagrams
    4 Describe the properties of ionic compounds: (a) high melting points and boiling points (b) good electrical conductivity when aqueous or molten and poor when solid5 Describe the giant lattice structure of ionic compounds as a regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions
    6 Describe the formation of ionic bonds between ions of metallic and non-metallic elements, including the use of dot-and-cross diagrams
    7 Explain in terms of structure and bonding the properties of ionic compounds: (a) high melting points and boiling points (b) good electrical conductivity when aqueous or molten and poor when solid

    2.5 Simple Molecules and Covalent Bonds

    CoreSupplement
    1 State that a covalent bond is formed when a pair of electrons is shared between two atoms leading to noble gas electronic configurations
    2 Describe the formation of covalent bonds in simple molecules, including H2, Cl2, H2O, CH4, NH3 and HCl. Use dot-and-cross diagrams to show the electronic configurations in these and similar molecules
    3 Describe in terms of structure and bonding the properties of simple molecular compounds: (a) low melting points and boiling points (b) poor electrical conductivity4 Describe the formation of covalent bonds in simple molecules, including CH3OH, C2H4, O2, CO2 and N2. Use dot-and-cross diagrams to show the electronic configurations in these and similar molecules
    5 Explain in terms of structure and bonding the properties of simple molecular compounds: (a) low melting points and boiling points in terms of weak intermolecular forces (specific types of intermolecular forces are not required) (b) poor electrical conductivity

    2.6 Giant Covalent Structures

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the giant covalent structures of graphite and diamond
    2 Relate the structures and bonding of graphite and diamond to their uses, limited to: (a) graphite as a lubricant and as an electrode (b) diamond in cutting tools3 Describe the giant covalent structure of silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2
    4 Describe the similarity in properties between diamond and silicon(IV) oxide, related to their structures

    2.7 Metallic Bonding

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe metallic bonding as the electrostatic attraction between the positive ions in a giant metallic lattice and a 'sea' of delocalised electrons
    2 Explain in terms of structure and bonding the properties of metals: (a) good electrical conductivity (b) malleability and ductility
    3. Stoichiometry +

    3.1 Formulae

    CoreSupplement
    1 State the formulae of the elements and compounds named in the subject content
    2 Define the molecular formula of a compound as the number and type of different atoms in one molecule
    3 Deduce the formula of a simple compound from the relative numbers of atoms present in a model or a diagrammatic representation
    4 Construct word equations and symbol equations to show how reactants form products, including state symbols5 Define the empirical formula of a compound as the simplest whole number ratio of the different atoms or ions in a compound
    6 Deduce the formula of an ionic compound from the relative numbers of the ions present in a model or a diagrammatic representation or from the charges on the ions
    7 Construct symbol equations with state symbols, including ionic equations
    8 Deduce the symbol equation with state symbols for a chemical reaction, given relevant information

    3.2 Relative Masses of Atoms and Molecules

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe relative atomic mass, Ar as the average mass of the isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of 12C
    2 Define relative molecular mass, Mr as the sum of the relative atomic masses. Relative formula mass, Mr will be used for ionic compounds
    3 Calculate reacting masses in simple proportions. Calculations will not involve the mole concept

    3.3 The Mole and the Avogadro Constant

    ⚠️ This entire section is Supplement only – required for Extended candidates.
    CoreSupplement
    2 State that the mole, mol, is the unit of amount of substance and that one mole contains 6.02×1023 particles, e.g. atoms, ions, molecules; this number is the Avogadro constant
    3 Use the relationship amount of substance (mol) = mass (g) / molar mass (g/mol) to calculate: (a) amount of substance (b) mass (c) molar mass (d) relative atomic mass or relative molecular/formula mass (e) number of particles, using the value of the Avogadro constant
    4 Use the molar gas volume, taken as 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure, r.t.p., in calculations involving gases
    5 Calculate stoichiometric reacting masses, limiting reactants, volumes of gases at r.t.p., volumes of solutions and concentrations of solutions expressed in g/dm3 and mol/dm3 including conversion between cm3 and dm3
    6 Use experimental data from a titration to calculate the moles of solute, or the concentration or volume of a solution
    7 Calculate empirical formulae and molecular formulae, given appropriate data
    8 Calculate percentage yield, percentage composition by mass and percentage purity, given appropriate data
    4. Electrochemistry +

    4.1 Electrolysis

    CoreSupplement
    1 Define electrolysis as the decomposition of an ionic compound, when molten or in aqueous solution, by the passage of an electric current
    2 Identify in simple electrolytic cells: (a) the anode as the positive electrode (b) the cathode as the negative electrode (c) the electrolyte as the molten or aqueous substance that undergoes electrolysis8 Describe the transfer of charge during electrolysis to include: (a) the movement of electrons in the external circuit (b) the loss or gain of electrons at the electrodes (c) the movement of ions in the electrolyte
    3 Identify the products formed at the electrodes and describe the observations made during the electrolysis of: (a) molten lead(II) bromide (b) concentrated aqueous sodium chloride (c) dilute sulfuric acid using inert electrodes made of platinum or carbon/graphite
    4 State that metals or hydrogen are formed at the cathode and that non-metals (other than hydrogen) are formed at the anode
    5 Predict the identity of the products at each electrode for the electrolysis of a binary compound in the molten state
    6 State that metal objects are electroplated to improve their appearance and resistance to corrosion
    7 Describe how metals are electroplated9 Identify the products formed at the electrodes and describe the observations made during the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulfate using inert carbon/graphite electrodes and when using copper electrodes
    10 Predict the identity of the products at each electrode for the electrolysis of a halide compound in dilute or concentrated aqueous solution
    11 Construct ionic half-equations for reactions at the anode (to show oxidation) and at the cathode (to show reduction)

    4.2 Hydrogen–Oxygen Fuel Cells

    CoreSupplement
    1 State that a hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity with water as the only chemical product2 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells in comparison with gasoline/petrol engines in vehicles
    5. Chemical Energetics +

    5.1 Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

    CoreSupplement
    1 State that an exothermic reaction transfers thermal energy to the surroundings leading to an increase in the temperature of the surroundings
    2 State that an endothermic reaction takes in thermal energy from the surroundings leading to a decrease in the temperature of the surroundings
    3 Interpret reaction pathway diagrams showing exothermic and endothermic reactions4 State that the transfer of thermal energy during a reaction is called the enthalpy change, ΔH of the reaction. ΔH is negative for exothermic reactions and positive for endothermic reactions
    5 Define activation energy, Ea as the minimum energy that colliding particles must have to react
    6 Draw and label reaction pathway diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions using information provided, to include: (a) reactants (b) products (c) enthalpy change of the reaction, ΔH (d) activation energy, Ea
    7 State that bond breaking is an endothermic process and bond making is an exothermic process and explain the enthalpy change of a reaction in terms of bond breaking and bond making
    8 Calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond energies
    6. Chemical Reactions +

    6.1 Physical and Chemical Changes

    CoreSupplement
    1 Identify physical and chemical changes, and describe the differences between them

    6.2 Rate of Reaction

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the effect on the rate of reaction of: (a) changing the concentration of solutions (b) changing the pressure of gases (c) changing the surface area of solids (d) changing the temperature (e) adding or removing a catalyst, including enzymes
    2 State that a catalyst increases the rate of a reaction and is unchanged at the end of a reaction
    3 Describe practical methods for investigating the rate of a reaction including change in mass of a reactant or a product and the formation of a gas
    4 Interpret data, including graphs, from rate of reaction experiments5 Describe collision theory in terms of: (a) number of particles per unit volume (b) frequency of collisions between particles (c) kinetic energy of particles (d) activation energy, Ea
    6 Describe and explain the effect on the rate of reaction of: (a) changing the concentration of solutions (b) changing the pressure of gases (c) changing the surface area of solids (d) changing the temperature (e) adding or removing a catalyst, including enzymes using collision theory
    7 State that a catalyst decreases the activation energy, Ea of a reaction
    8 Evaluate practical methods for investigating the rate of a reaction including change in mass of a reactant or a product and the formation of a gas

    6.3 Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium

    CoreSupplement
    1 State that some chemical reactions are reversible as shown by the symbol ⇌
    2 Describe how changing the conditions can change the direction of a reversible reaction for: (a) the effect of heat on hydrated compounds (b) the addition of water to anhydrous compounds limited to copper(II) sulfate and cobalt(II) chloride3 State that a reversible reaction in a closed system is at equilibrium when: (a) the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction (b) the concentrations of reactants and products are no longer changing
    4 Predict and explain, for a reversible reaction, how the position of equilibrium is affected by: (a) changing temperature (b) changing pressure (c) changing concentration (d) using a catalyst using information provided
    5 State the symbol equation for the production of ammonia in the Haber process, N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
    6 State the sources of the hydrogen (methane) and nitrogen (air) in the Haber process
    7 State the typical conditions in the Haber process as 450°C, 20000 kPa / 200 atm and an iron catalyst
    8 State the symbol equation for the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide in the Contact process, 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
    9 State the sources of the sulfur dioxide (burning sulfur or roasting sulfide ores) and oxygen (air) in the Contact process
    10 State the typical conditions for the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide in the Contact process as 450°C, 200 kPa / 2 atm and a vanadium(V) oxide catalyst
    11 Explain, in terms of rate of reaction and position of equilibrium, why the typical conditions stated are used in the Haber process and in the Contact process, including safety considerations and economics

    6.4 Redox

    CoreSupplement
    1 Use a Roman numeral to indicate the oxidation number of an element in a compound
    2 Define redox reactions as involving simultaneous oxidation and reduction
    3 Define oxidation as gain of oxygen and reduction as loss of oxygen
    4 Identify redox reactions as reactions involving gain and loss of oxygen
    5 Identify oxidation and reduction in redox reactions6 Define oxidation in terms of: (a) loss of electrons (b) an increase in oxidation number
    7 Define reduction in terms of: (a) gain of electrons (b) a decrease in oxidation number
    8 Identify redox reactions as reactions involving gain and loss of electrons
    9 Identify redox reactions by changes in oxidation number using: (a) the oxidation number of elements in their uncombined state is zero (b) the oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the same as the charge on the ion (c) the sum of the oxidation numbers in a compound is zero (d) the sum of the oxidation numbers in an ion is equal to the charge on the ion
    10 Identify redox reactions by the colour changes involved when using acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII) or aqueous potassium iodide
    11 Define an oxidising agent as a substance that oxidises another substance and is itself reduced
    12 Define a reducing agent as a substance that reduces another substance and is itself oxidised
    13 Identify oxidising agents and reducing agents in redox reactions
    7. Acids, Bases and Salts +

    7.1 The Characteristic Properties of Acids and Bases

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the characteristic properties of acids in terms of their reactions with: (a) metals (b) bases (c) carbonates
    2 Describe acids in terms of their effect on: (a) litmus (b) thymolphthalein (c) methyl orange
    3 State that bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals and that alkalis are soluble bases
    4 Describe the characteristic properties of bases in terms of their reactions with: (a) acids (b) ammonium salts
    5 Describe alkalis in terms of their effect on: (a) litmus (b) thymolphthalein (c) methyl orange
    6 State that aqueous solutions of acids contain H+ ions and aqueous solutions of alkalis contain OH− ions
    7 Describe how to compare hydrogen ion concentration, neutrality, relative acidity and relative alkalinity in terms of colour and pH using universal indicator paper
    8 Describe the neutralisation reaction between an acid and an alkali to produce water, H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l)9 Define acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors
    10 Define a strong acid as an acid that is completely dissociated in aqueous solution and a weak acid as an acid that is partially dissociated in aqueous solution
    11 State that hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, as shown by the symbol equation, HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
    12 State that ethanoic acid is a weak acid, as shown by the symbol equation, CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CH3COO−(aq)

    7.2 Oxides

    CoreSupplement
    1 Classify oxides as acidic, including SO2 and CO2 or basic, including CuO and CaO, related to metallic and non-metallic character2 Describe amphoteric oxides as oxides that react with acids and with bases to produce a salt and water
    3 Classify Al2O3 and ZnO as amphoteric oxides

    7.3 Preparation of Salts

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the preparation, separation and purification of soluble salts by reaction of an acid with: (a) an alkali by titration (b) excess metal (c) excess insoluble base (d) excess insoluble carbonate
    2 Describe the general solubility rules for salts: (a) sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble (b) nitrates are soluble (c) chlorides are soluble, except lead and silver (d) sulfates are soluble, except barium, calcium and lead (e) carbonates are insoluble, except sodium, potassium and ammonium (f) hydroxides are insoluble, except sodium, potassium, ammonium and calcium (partially)
    3 Define a hydrated substance as a substance that is chemically combined with water and an anhydrous substance as a substance containing no water4 Describe the preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation
    5 Define the term water of crystallisation as the water molecules present in hydrated crystals, including CuSO4·5H2O and CoCl2·6H2O
    8. The Periodic Table +

    8.1 Arrangement of Elements

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the Periodic Table as an arrangement of elements in periods and groups and in order of increasing proton number/atomic number
    2 Describe the change from metallic to non-metallic character across a period
    3 Describe the relationship between group number and the charge of the ions formed from elements in that group
    4 Explain similarities in the chemical properties of elements in the same group of the Periodic Table in terms of their electronic configuration
    5 Explain how the position of an element in the Periodic Table can be used to predict its properties6 Identify trends in groups, given information about the elements

    8.2 Group I Properties

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the Group I alkali metals, lithium, sodium and potassium, as relatively soft metals with general trends down the group, limited to: (a) decreasing melting point (b) increasing density (c) increasing reactivity
    2 Predict the properties of other elements in Group I, given information about the elements

    8.3 Group VII Properties

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the Group VII halogens, chlorine, bromine and iodine, as diatomic non-metals with general trends down the group, limited to: (a) increasing density (b) decreasing reactivity
    2 State the appearance of the halogens at r.t.p. as: (a) chlorine, a pale yellow-green gas (b) bromine, a red-brown liquid (c) iodine, a grey-black solid
    3 Describe and explain the displacement reactions of halogens with other halide ions
    4 Predict the properties of other elements in Group VII, given information about the elements

    8.4 Transition Elements

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the transition elements as metals that: (a) have high densities (b) have high melting points (c) form coloured compounds (d) often act as catalysts as elements and in compounds2 Describe transition elements as having ions with variable oxidation numbers, including iron(II) and iron(III)

    8.5 Noble Gases

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the Group VIII noble gases as unreactive, monatomic gases and explain this in terms of electronic configuration
    9. Metals +

    9.1 Properties of Metals

    CoreSupplement
    1 Compare the general physical properties of metals and non-metals, including: (a) thermal conductivity (b) electrical conductivity (c) malleability and ductility (d) melting points and boiling points
    2 Describe the general chemical properties of metals, limited to their reactions with: (a) dilute acids (b) cold water and steam (c) oxygen

    9.2 Uses of Metals

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the uses of metals in terms of their physical properties, including: (a) aluminium in the manufacture of aircraft because of its low density (b) aluminium in the manufacture of overhead electrical cables because of its low density and good electrical conductivity (c) aluminium in food containers because of its resistance to corrosion (d) copper in electrical wiring because of its good electrical conductivity and ductility

    9.3 Alloys and Their Properties

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe an alloy as a mixture of a metal with other elements, including: (a) brass as a mixture of copper and zinc (b) stainless steel as a mixture of iron and other elements such as chromium, nickel and carbon
    2 State that alloys can be harder and stronger than the pure metals and are more useful
    3 Describe the uses of alloys in terms of their physical properties, including stainless steel in cutlery because of its hardness and resistance to rusting
    4 Identify representations of alloys from diagrams of structure5 Explain in terms of structure how alloys can be harder and stronger than the pure metals because the different sized atoms in alloys mean the layers can no longer slide over each other

    9.4 Reactivity Series

    CoreSupplement
    1 State the order of the reactivity series as: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, carbon, zinc, iron, hydrogen, copper, silver, gold
    2 Describe the reactions, if any, of: (a) potassium, sodium and calcium with cold water (b) magnesium with steam (c) magnesium, zinc, iron, copper, silver and gold with dilute hydrochloric acid and explain these reactions in terms of the position of the metals in the reactivity series
    3 Deduce an order of reactivity from a given set of experimental results4 Describe the relative reactivities of metals in terms of their tendency to form positive ions, by displacement reactions, if any, with the aqueous ions of magnesium, zinc, iron, copper and silver
    5 Explain the apparent unreactivity of aluminium in terms of its oxide layer

    9.5 Corrosion of Metals

    CoreSupplement
    1 State the conditions required for the rusting of iron and steel to form hydrated iron(III) oxide
    2 State some common barrier methods, including painting, greasing and coating with plastic
    3 Describe how barrier methods prevent rusting by excluding oxygen or water4 Describe the use of zinc in galvanising as an example of a barrier method and sacrificial protection
    5 Explain sacrificial protection in terms of the reactivity series and in terms of electron loss

    9.6 Extraction of Metals

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the ease in obtaining metals from their ores, related to the position of the metal in the reactivity series
    2 Describe the extraction of iron from hematite in the blast furnace, limited to: (a) the burning of carbon (coke) to provide heat and produce carbon dioxide (b) the reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide (c) the reduction of iron(III) oxide by carbon monoxide (d) the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate/limestone to produce calcium oxide (e) the formation of slag. Symbol equations are not required
    3 State that the main ore of aluminium is bauxite and that aluminium is extracted by electrolysis4 State the symbol equations for the extraction of iron from hematite: (a) C + O2 → CO2 (b) C + CO2 → 2CO (c) Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2 (d) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 (e) CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
    5 Describe the extraction of aluminium from purified bauxite/aluminium oxide, including: (a) the role of cryolite (b) why the carbon anodes need to be regularly replaced (c) the reactions at the electrodes, including ionic half-equations. Details of the purification of bauxite are not required
    10. Chemistry of the Environment +

    10.1 Water

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe chemical tests for the presence of water using anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride and anhydrous copper(II) sulfate
    2 Describe how to test for the purity of water using melting point and boiling point
    3 Explain that distilled water is used in practical chemistry rather than tap water because it contains fewer chemical impurities
    4 State that water from natural sources may contain substances, including: (a) dissolved oxygen (b) metal compounds (c) plastics (d) sewage (e) harmful microbes (f) nitrates from fertilisers (g) phosphates from fertilisers and detergents
    5 State that some of these substances are beneficial, including: (a) dissolved oxygen for aquatic life (b) some metal compounds provide essential minerals for life
    6 State that some of these substances are potentially harmful, including: (a) some metal compounds are toxic (b) some plastics harm aquatic life (c) sewage contains harmful microbes which cause disease (d) nitrates and phosphates lead to deoxygenation of water and damage to aquatic life. Details of the eutrophication process are not required
    7 Describe the treatment of the domestic water supply in terms of: (a) sedimentation and filtration to remove solids (b) use of carbon to remove tastes and odours (c) chlorination to kill microbes

    10.2 Fertilisers

    CoreSupplement
    1 State that ammonium salts and nitrates are used as fertilisers
    2 Describe the use of NPK fertilisers to provide the elements nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium for improved plant growth

    10.3 Air Quality and Climate

    CoreSupplement
    1 State the composition of clean, dry air as approximately 78% nitrogen, N2, 21% oxygen, O2, and the remainder as a mixture of noble gases and carbon dioxide, CO2
    2 State the source of each of these air pollutants, limited to: (a) carbon dioxide from the complete combustion of carbon-containing fuels (b) carbon monoxide and particulates from the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels (c) methane from the decomposition of vegetation and waste gases from digestion in animals (d) oxides of nitrogen from car engines (e) sulfur dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels which contain sulfur compounds
    3 State the adverse effect of these air pollutants, limited to: (a) carbon dioxide: higher levels of carbon dioxide leading to increased global warming, which leads to climate change (b) carbon monoxide: toxic gas (c) particulates: increased risk of respiratory problems and cancer (d) methane: higher levels of methane leading to increased global warming, which leads to climate change (e) oxides of nitrogen: acid rain, photochemical smog and respiratory problems (f) sulfur dioxide: acid rain7 Describe how the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane cause global warming, limited to: (a) the absorption, reflection and emission of thermal energy (b) reducing thermal energy loss to space
    4 State and explain strategies to reduce the effects of these environmental issues, limited to: (a) climate change: planting trees, reduction in livestock farming, decreasing use of fossil fuels, increasing use of hydrogen and renewable energy, e.g. wind, solar (b) acid rain: use of catalytic converters in vehicles, reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide by using low-sulfur fuels and flue gas desulfurisation with calcium oxide
    5 Describe photosynthesis as the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen in the presence of chlorophyll and using energy from light
    6 State the word equation for photosynthesis: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen8 Explain how oxides of nitrogen form in car engines and describe their removal by catalytic converters, e.g. 2CO + 2NO → 2CO2 + N2
    9 State the symbol equation for photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
    11. Organic Chemistry +

    11.1 Formulae, Functional Groups and Terminology

    CoreSupplement
    1 Draw and interpret the displayed formula of a molecule to show all the atoms and all the bonds
    2 Write and interpret general formulae of compounds in the same homologous series, limited to: (a) alkanes, CnH2n+2 (b) alkenes, CnH2n (c) alcohols, CnH2n+1OH (d) carboxylic acids, CnH2n+1COOH
    3 Identify a functional group as an atom or group of atoms that determine the chemical properties of a homologous series
    4 State that a homologous series is a family of similar compounds with similar chemical properties due to the presence of the same functional group
    5 State that a saturated compound has molecules in which all carbon–carbon bonds are single bonds
    6 State that an unsaturated compound has molecules in which one or more carbon–carbon bonds are not single bonds7 State that a structural formula is an unambiguous description of the way the atoms in a molecule are arranged, including CH2=CH2, CH3CH2OH, CH3COOCH3
    8 Define structural isomers as compounds with the same molecular formula, but different structural formulae, including C4H10 as CH3CH2CH2CH3 and CH3CH(CH3)CH3 and C4H8 as CH3CH2CH=CH2 and CH3CH=CHCH3
    9 Describe the general characteristics of a homologous series as: (a) having the same functional group (b) having the same general formula (c) differing from one member to the next by a –CH2– unit (d) displaying a trend in physical properties (e) sharing similar chemical properties

    11.2 Naming Organic Compounds

    CoreSupplement
    1 Name and draw the displayed formulae of: (a) methane and ethane (b) ethene (c) ethanol (d) ethanoic acid (e) the products of the reactions stated in sections 11.4–11.7
    2 State the type of compound present, given a chemical name ending in -ane, -ene, -ol, or -oic acid or from a molecular formula or displayed formula3 Name and draw the structural and displayed formulae of unbranched: (a) alkanes (b) alkenes, including but-1-ene and but-2-ene (c) alcohols, including propan-1-ol, propan-2-ol, butan-1-ol and butan-2-ol (d) carboxylic acids containing up to four carbon atoms per molecule
    4 Name and draw the displayed formulae of the unbranched esters which can be made from unbranched alcohols and carboxylic acids, each containing up to four carbon atoms

    11.3 Fuels

    CoreSupplement
    1 Name the fossil fuels: coal, natural gas and petroleum
    2 Name methane as the main constituent of natural gas
    3 State that hydrocarbons are compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon only
    4 State that petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons
    5 Describe the separation of petroleum into useful fractions by fractional distillation
    6 Describe how the properties of fractions obtained from petroleum change from the bottom to the top of the fractionating column, limited to: (a) decreasing chain length (b) higher volatility (c) lower boiling points (d) lower viscosity
    7 Name the uses of the fractions as: (a) refinery gas fraction for gas used in heating and cooking (b) gasoline/petrol fraction for fuel used in cars (c) naphtha fraction as a chemical feedstock (d) kerosene/paraffin fraction for jet fuel (e) diesel oil/gas oil fraction for fuel used in diesel engines (f) fuel oil fraction for fuel used in ships and home heating systems (g) lubricating oil fraction for lubricants, waxes and polishes (h) bitumen fraction for making roads

    11.4 Alkanes

    CoreSupplement
    1 State that the bonding in alkanes is single covalent and that alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons
    2 Describe the properties of alkanes as being generally unreactive, except in terms of combustion and substitution by chlorine3 State that in a substitution reaction one atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms
    4 Describe the substitution reaction of alkanes with chlorine as a photochemical reaction, with ultraviolet light providing the activation energy, Ea, and draw the structural or displayed formulae of the products, limited to monosubstitution

    11.5 Alkenes

    CoreSupplement
    1 State that the bonding in alkenes includes a double carbon–carbon covalent bond and that alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons
    2 Describe the manufacture of alkenes and hydrogen by the cracking of larger alkane molecules using a high temperature and a catalyst
    3 Describe the reasons for the cracking of larger alkane molecules
    4 Describe the test to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons by their reaction with aqueous bromine5 State that in an addition reaction only one product is formed
    6 Describe the properties of alkenes in terms of addition reactions with: (a) bromine or aqueous bromine (b) hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst (c) steam in the presence of an acid catalyst and draw the structural or displayed formulae of the products

    11.6 Alcohols

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the manufacture of ethanol by: (a) fermentation of aqueous glucose at 25–35°C in the presence of yeast and in the absence of oxygen (b) catalytic addition of steam to ethene at 300°C and 6000 kPa / 60 atm in the presence of an acid catalyst
    2 Describe the combustion of ethanol
    3 State the uses of ethanol as: (a) a solvent (b) a fuel4 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the manufacture of ethanol by: (a) fermentation (b) catalytic addition of steam to ethene

    11.7 Carboxylic Acids

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe the reaction of ethanoic acid with: (a) metals (b) bases (c) carbonates including names and formulae of the salts produced2 Describe the formation of ethanoic acid by the oxidation of ethanol: (a) with acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII) (b) by bacterial oxidation during vinegar production
    3 Describe the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol using an acid catalyst to form an ester

    11.8 Polymers

    CoreSupplement
    1 Define polymers as large molecules built up from many smaller molecules called monomers
    2 Describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition polymerisation using ethene monomers6 Identify the repeat units and/or linkages in addition polymers and in condensation polymers
    3 State that plastics are made from polymers
    4 Describe how the properties of plastics have implications for their disposal
    5 Describe the environmental challenges caused by plastics, limited to: (a) disposal in landfill sites (b) accumulation in oceans (c) formation of toxic gases from burning7 Deduce the structure or repeat unit of an addition polymer from a given alkene and vice versa
    8 Deduce the structure or repeat unit of a condensation polymer from given monomers and vice versa, limited to: (a) polyamides from a dicarboxylic acid and a diamine (b) polyesters from a dicarboxylic acid and a diol
    9 Describe the differences between addition and condensation polymerisation
    10 Describe and draw the structure of: (a) nylon, a polyamide (b) PET, a polyester
    11 State that PET can be converted back into monomers and re-polymerised
    12 Describe proteins as natural polyamides and that they are formed from amino acid monomers with the general structure: H2N–CH(R)–COOH
    13 Describe and draw the structure of proteins as polyamides
    12. Experimental Techniques and Chemical Analysis +

    12.1 Experimental Design

    CoreSupplement
    1 Name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature, mass and volume, including: (a) stop-watches (b) thermometers (c) balances (d) burettes (e) volumetric pipettes (f) measuring cylinders (g) gas syringes
    2 Suggest advantages and disadvantages of experimental methods and apparatus
    3 Describe a: (a) solvent as a substance that dissolves a solute (b) solute as a substance that is dissolved in a solvent (c) solution as a mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent (d) saturated solution as a solution containing the maximum concentration of a solute dissolved in the solvent at a specified temperature (e) residue as a substance that remains after evaporation, distillation, filtration or any similar process (f) filtrate as a liquid or solution that has passed through a filter

    12.2 Acid–Base Titrations

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe an acid–base titration to include the use of a: (a) burette (b) volumetric pipette (c) suitable indicator
    2 Describe how to identify the end-point of a titration using an indicator

    12.3 Chromatography

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe how paper chromatography is used to separate mixtures of soluble coloured substances, using a suitable solvent
    2 Interpret simple chromatograms to identify: (a) unknown substances by comparison with known substances (b) pure and impure substances3 Describe how paper chromatography is used to separate mixtures of soluble colourless substances, using a suitable solvent and a locating agent. Knowledge of specific locating agents is not required
    4 State and use the equation for Rf: Rf = distance travelled by substance / distance travelled by solvent

    12.4 Separation and Purification

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe and explain methods of separation and purification using: (a) a suitable solvent (b) filtration (c) crystallisation (d) simple distillation (e) fractional distillation
    2 Suggest suitable separation and purification techniques, given information about the substances involved
    3 Identify substances and assess their purity using melting point and boiling point information

    12.5 Identification of Ions and Gases

    CoreSupplement
    1 Describe tests to identify the anions: (a) carbonate, CO32−, by reaction with dilute acid and then testing for carbon dioxide gas (b) chloride, Cl−, bromide, Br−, and iodide, I−, by acidifying with dilute nitric acid then adding aqueous silver nitrate (c) nitrate, NO3−, reduction with aluminium foil and aqueous sodium hydroxide and then testing for ammonia gas (d) sulfate, SO42−, by acidifying with dilute nitric acid and then adding aqueous barium nitrate (e) sulfite, SO32−, by reaction with acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII)
    2 Describe tests using aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia to identify the aqueous cations: (a) aluminium, Al3+ (b) ammonium, NH4+ (c) calcium, Ca2+ (d) chromium(III), Cr3+ (e) copper(II), Cu2+ (f) iron(II), Fe2+ (g) iron(III), Fe3+ (h) zinc, Zn2+
    3 Describe tests to identify the gases: (a) ammonia, NH3, using damp red litmus paper (b) carbon dioxide, CO2, using limewater (c) chlorine, Cl2, using damp litmus paper (d) hydrogen, H2, using a lighted splint (e) oxygen, O2, using a glowing splint (f) sulfur dioxide, SO2, using acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII)
    4 Describe the use of a flame test to identify the cations: (a) lithium, Li+ (b) sodium, Na+ (c) potassium, K+ (d) calcium, Ca2+ (e) barium, Ba2+ (f) copper(II), Cu2+
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